Drums and Dances and Drugs, Oh My!
If we turn back the pages of time some untold thousands of years, back to when society was still in its infancy, we would notice something remarkable: not only did these ancient cultures have their own style of religious ceremony, but the hierarchy and underlying beliefs of these pseudo-religions are commonly reflected in modern spiritual beliefs. Shamanistic religions are arguably the oldest form of religion known to man, dating back to times before written history. Some unearthed shamanistic artifacts date as far back as 10,000 years B.C.E. and evidence exists for shamanism as far back as into the Paleolithic era, or Stone Age (Clottes).
Shamanism Through Time
These early religions rely on the use of a shaman, an intermediate or mediator between the spiritual and physical realms. Depending on the culture, region, and tribe, the exact purpose and role of the shaman within the culture could vary greatly, but most shamans held positions of significant importance. Common beliefs in these shamanistic religions include: the belief that spirits play an active role in human life and society, that shamans can treat spirit related illnesses, and that the shaman’s trace allows their spirit to rejoin the supernatural realm and receive visions or search for answers. How the shaman achieved this physical and spiritual separation varied greatly from one region and tribe to the next. Some cultures, such as those from Southeast Asia, Africa, and Australia commonly used musical instruments and dance to aid in entering a trace-like state. Others, such as those in the Americas and those scattered about the globe, may also rely on the use of psychoactive plants and botanicals to contact the supernatural realm via hallucinations (Shulgin et al. 13-14). The broad term used for these plants is “entheogens.”
These entheogens very greatly from region to region and can be anything from small shrubs, cacti, and even mushrooms. Usage of these psychoactive plants in shamanistic cultures included aiding traces, medicine, social aids, or even recreation (Hippyland). However, it is commonly not the reason for entheogen usage that gains these shamanistic religions notoriety; it is the use of psychoactive substances in general.
For most of the history of shamanism, there were no large societies, grand civilizations, or even a unified legal system. Because many of the tribes and groups of this time included shamans as part of their society, it was commonplace for shamanism to be culturally acceptable. It wasn’t until considerably later in history, namely during the rise of empires like Rome and Byzantium, that shamanism began to fade slowly to the pages of history. The reason for this decline is actually quite simple: as societies began to mix and merge, shamanistic beliefs and rituals slowly assimilated into more mainstream cultures or religions such as Christianity, Judaism, and Hinduism (Campbell 124-127). Other shaman cultures simply died out with the passing of their shamans and spiritual leaders.
During this time of cultural expansion, use of entheogens succeeded in remaining somewhat prevalent (Heaven et al. 35-38). Although shamanism was on the decline, spiritualism was on the rise. Instead of relying on the aid of a shaman for spiritual connection, some included usage of psychoactive plants as part of their daily life, as seen in Native American, Hindu, and Rastafarian cultures. In regions unaffected by this large-scale cultural integration, or in cultures that resisted assimilation, shamanism remained largely intact. Today, we can still see examples of active traditional shamanism in remote regions and many regions considered “third world.” Most notable are Eskimo, tribal African, and isolated Southeast Asian cultures.
With the rise of Christianity during the Middle Ages, use of psychoactive substances was finally coming under direct cultural attack (Heaven et al. 42-44). Proclaiming that use of the mind altering plants was heresy or witchcraft, practitioners and users were persecuted or eradicated. Again, history repeated itself, and shamanism and usage of entheogens wasn’t fully removed from society but was forced into a minority group. This is how the remains of shamanism would survive for the following hundreds of years.
Rebirth and Resistance
Despite the large decline of shamanistic cultures and practices in modern times, the amount of these cultures remaining is staggering. Essentially every region on the planet still has some remaining form of shamanism, from Native American peyote usage to the smoking of marijuana in Rastafarianism. In essence, shamanism has never died, but only has changed shape and appearance. After centuries of decline, shamanism regained a foothold in modern society, first through the hippie movements of the 1960s and currently through the rise of the New Age culture. Many New Age practitioners return to the thoughts, ideologies, and herbs used by shamanistic cultures of the past. Furthermore, from the hippie movement, a new “psychonaut” culture has emerged. These self proclaimed hallucinogen enthusiasts use entheogens to aid in their understanding of the universe, of themselves, and deepen or gain insight on their spiritual beliefs. Both psychonauts and New Age practitioners, in essence, eliminate the shaman middleman and take it upon themselves to experience the spiritual realm firsthand.
Like the cultures before them, these minority groups are being met with mainstream resistance. On one hand, the population views these groups as rebels to social norms, substituting normality with eccentricies. On the other hand, some of the practices of these groups border on taboo, and in some situations, are outright illegal. In many cultures where shamanism is still actively practiced, these “outlandish” practices are acceptable, and not surprisingly, legal. However, when these beliefs exist within a larger “modernized” society, there seems to be a schism: there are those who believe that consumption of entheogens should be legal because of their cultural values, and those who believe that they should not.
The answer to this situation is almost unnervingly more complex that it first presents itself. First, we have whether or not consumption of entheogens should be legal or acceptable in the first place. Secondly, if they are deemed unfit for legal usage, should certain groups be permitted to use them for genuine cultural reasons? Lastly, does the existence of shamanistic practices hold any modern value and should they be eliminated?
Legality
To the first question, our nation, or at least our nation’s lawmakers, have answered no; usage of psychoactive substances should not be permitted. However, the actual application of this mentality has caused certain troubles. Throughout most of the world, there are certain psychoactive substances – LSD, marijuana, psilocybin mushrooms, and DMT – which are almost unanimously illegal. Upon closer inspection, we find that there are holes in these laws, allowing other psychoactive plants and chemicals like caffeine, alcohol, tobacco, and even powerful entheogens like salvia divinorum and amanita muscaria. One could almost say that there is some hypocrisy in the United States when it comes to drug laws, classifying some psychoactive substances illegal while other are legally available.
Despite all of this, is it my firm opinion that most currently illegal substances should become legalized, but controlled. Like alcohol and tobacco, psychoactive substances would have stipulations for their sale, consumption, and manufacture. What I envision isn’t a free-for-all drug riddled country, but quite the opposite: a country that understands the human right to consume what we so desire, so long as it doesn’t present itself as a danger to others. On the contrary, should a nation deem that we as citizens shouldn’t consume psychoactive substances, they should be barred across the board; it should be all or nothing. To allow legal substitutes to illegal materials is to undermine the legal system itself.
Special Cases
In a situation where the use of psychoactive substances – like those used in shamanistic rituals – is legal, the consideration of what cultural groups have access to them is a moot point. If a substance is legal, it should be available for all to consume under its predefined conditions, no matter the reason for consuming; this is my expressed opinion on the matter. However, in a situation like that in the United States, the question arises as to who can legally use certain “cultural” psychoactive substances. For example, only a few practitioners of Native American shaman rituals are allowed to use the hallucinogen mescaline, the active substance in the peyote cactus. The reason cited for this is that the usage of the peyote cactus is an integral part of their culture, and that the use of peyote is deemed acceptable for “bonafide religious ceremonies.” This sounds unproblematic at first review, but how exactly does one define “bonafide religious ceremonies”? Hypothetically, under this proclamation, why shouldn’t a Rastafarian be allowed to use marijuana as a spiritual aid?
Furthermore, the problem of what is considered a religion is brought into question. A psychonaut could argue that their ritualized spiritual explorations are a form of religion, yet they are still barred from using psychoactive materials. It may seem contradictory to my stance on drug legality, but I feel strongly that no special cases should be provided for controlled substances. I feel almost guilty in using the phrase, but in allowing certain groups unique privileges and exemptions from the law is a slippery slope. There are already conflicts on whether genuine cultural traditions should be given exemption to other laws such as mandatory school attendance. While these overlookings are agreeably quite benign, it becomes increasingly difficult to define what and when special case rights should be granted. Lastly, aside from difficulties in defining “bonafide religious ceremonies,” and rituals of cultural importance, one must realize that it is nearly impossible to prove or disprove one’s claim of being part of a cultural group. To legally partake in peyote rituals, one must be legally recognized as Native American, but this can be seen as discrimination against non-Native Americans who wholeheartedly practice the Native American religions.
In summation, allowing any form of special legal exemptions for cultural, ethnic, or religious groups outright fails what is known as the “lemon test.” In short, the lemon test is a rule of thumb of legal rulings: they must have a valid secular purpose, they must not aid in advancing or inhibiting religion, and they must not cause “excessive government entanglement.” By allowing special cases, our government is breaking the last two clauses of the lemon test, and as such, should repeal any special case laws and bar any further exception laws from being enacted. Simply put, if a substance is illegal, it should remain illegal for all usages and to all persons.
Social Value
Lastly, we have not an issue of legality or morality, but one of introspection: should our world’s shamanistic roots be forgotten, be sealed to the pages of time, or should it continue to thrive and breathe diversity? This is not a matter easily resolved: to many, the effects of shamanism are not immediately apparent. It has brought about the subtleties in our modern world, including medicine, religious rituals, recreational drugs, and even a plethora of subcultures. While one could argue either way on this, I choose to identify shamanism as a significant force in our modern world. Even though shamanism has brought about a good number of conflicts, hardships, and debates, it still holds true that shamanism is one of the founding influences of modern society. To ignore this is to ignore our origins, and in turn, ignore part of our human identity. To ignore this almost universal commonality is to detach from our ancient relatives. Many will continue to live their lives unaware of such primitive driving forces, but to be ignorant of one’s origins is to be ignorant of one’s history. It is a matter of virtue then, not morals, for why shamanism must be allowed to flourish wherever it blooms: to be blind to the past is to forfeit one’s identity. Let us rejoice our common roots, for they are few and far between.
Works Cited
Campbell, Joseph. Primitive Mythology. New York: Penguin (Non-Classics), 1991.
Clottes, Jean. “Paleolithic Cave Paintings and Rock Art.” Bradshaw Foundation. 8 Dec. 2008 <http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/clottes/page7.php>.
Heaven, Ross, Howard G. Charing, and Pablo Amaringo. Plant Spirit Shamanism : Traditional Techniques for Healing the Soul. New York: Inner Traditions International, Limited, 2006.
“Psychedelic Shamanism.” Hippyland. 17 Nov. 2008 <http://www.hippy.com/article-50.html>.
Shulgin, Ann, Alexander Shulgin, and David E. Nichols. Pihkal : A Chemical Love Story. New York: Transform P, 1990.
